Este artigo traça um paralelo entre os eventos da Odisseia e a exploração dos jogos de azar. Para tanto, utilizando-se livremente de várias abordagens filosóficas, é defendido que o ser humano é naturalmente um jogador, com uma liberdade que é restrita a partir do surgimento do Estado. Este, tendo seus desdobramentos representados por Calipso, Cila e Caríbdis, terá que harmonizar essa natureza com seu poder soberano, regulamentando a exploração dos jogos de azar.

Apresentação / Pablo Lorenzano Introdução / Os editores Princípios em cosmologia / Antonio Augusto Passos Videira Aleatoriedad vs. arbitrariedad en la mecánica estadística clásica / Eduardo H. Flichman La teoría galileana de la materia: resolutio e infinitos indivisibles / Fernando Tula Molina Ciencia y música en la obra de Vincenzo Galilei (ca. 1520-1591) / Guillermo Boido & Eduardo Kastika T-invariancia, irreversibilidad, flecha del tiempo: similares pero diferentes / Olimpia Lombardi Mapa das interpretações da teoria quântica / Osvaldo Pessoa (...) Jr. Aspectos epistemológicos y geométricos de la teoría del campo unificado de Schrödinger / Victor Rodríguez & Pedro W. Lamberti. (shrink)

L'histoire de la réception littéraire de l'Utopie de Thomas More au Portugal a été une histoire d'omissions, de censures et de traductions différées qui met en évidence un défaut dans le système culturel portugais. En effet, il est quelque peu ironique qu'une œuvre aussi représentative de la littérature et de la pensée occidentale, historiquement associée à l'ouverture des horizons géographiques du monde, et qui attribue au personnage d'un marin lusitanien, Raphaël Hythlodée, la découverte d'un lieu idéal, n'a été traduite en (...) portugais que dans la seconde moitié du vingtième siècle. Cependant, la première décennie du vingt-et-unième siècle semble annoncer une fortune littéraire plus favorable à l'Utopie de More dans la langue portugaise: non seulement une édition du chef d'œuvre de More a finalement été traduite du latin, mais aussi deux romans ont été publiés en 2004, A lenda de Martim Regos, de Pedro Canais, et Rafael, de Manuel Alegre. Dans le cadre de leurs propres déroulements narratifs, les deux œuvres réaccentuent les traits complexes du personnage du marin portugais et découvreur de l'île idéale. La même réinvention du personnage de Raphaël avait déjà été tentée, en 1998, par José V. de Pina Martins dans son long récit dialogique Utopia III. Dans cet essai, je me concentrerai à la fois sur les sources documentaires liées à la culture portugaise qui sont à la base de l'Utopie de More et sur certains aspects pertinents de la réception du personnage de Raphaël Hythlodée dans les romans susmentionnés. (shrink)

This paper presents an analysis of several experimental tests of Einstein's theories, together with their Popperian evaluation and a discussion of Einstein's reaction to these tests. It is shown that several relevant refutations of Einstein's theories were not accepted by Einstein as significant, and that therefore Einstein did not follow Popper's methodological rules. This is regarded as a strong case against Popper's criterion of demarcation.

ConclusionThe common assumption that Becquerel had no special reason to study uranium compounds in his search for substances emitting penetrating radiation cannot explain (a) Becquerel's own accounts, which refer to his choice as due to “the peculiar harmonic series of bands”; (b) Becquerel's systematic test of all uranium compounds (and metallic uranium), in contrast to his neglect of other substances; and (c) Becquerel's belief in invisible phosphorescence as an explanation of the radiation emitted by uranium compounds, even after his discovery (...) that non-luminescent and metallic uranium also emit penetrating radiation.By comparing Becquerel's older studies of uranium to his radioactivity research, this paper has presented a reconstruction that can explain all of these points above. According to the historical evidence presented here, it is likely that Becquerel concentrated his attention on uranium and its compounds because the mechanical theory of luminescence opened up the possibility that, precisely in the case of uranium and its compounds, a violation of Stokes's law could occur, and penetrating short-wavelength radiation could be emitted through a special type of phosphorescence. (shrink)

Abstract This paper describes the early history of magnetochemistry: the search for chemical effects of magnetism in the nineteenth century. Some early researchers, such as Johann Wilhelm Ritter, attempted to reproduce with magnets the effects that had been produced by electricity and Volta’s battery. For several decades, researchers successively reported positive results and denied claims concerning the effect of magnetism in oxidation, electrolysis, reduction of metals from saline solutions, crystallisation, change of colour of vegetable tinctures and other chemical reactions. In (...) the two last decades of the nineteenth century some effects were accepted as real, and a thermodynamic theory of the influence of magnetic fields upon chemical reactions was developed. Finally, Dragomir Hurmuzescu was able to create reproducible experiments and measured the electromotive force between two electrodes, with or without the presence of magnetic fields, confirming the existence of the phenomenon and obtaining results compatible with the theoretical predictions. Afterwards, this magnetochemical effect was accepted as real, but the effect was weak and its practical importance was negligible. The subject was gradually forgotten. Content Type Journal Article Pages 1-26 DOI 10.1007/s10698-011-9127-8 Authors Roberto de Andrade Martins, Department of Physics, State University of Paraiba, Campina Grande, PB, Brazil Journal Foundations of Chemistry Online ISSN 1572-8463 Print ISSN 1386-4238. (shrink)

This paper discusses George John Romanes’ (1848-1894) contributions to evolution theory. In his early evolutionary work, Romanes could be regarded as a mere disciple and collaborator of Darwin. Strictly speaking, a follower of Darwin would only attempt to develop and to diffuse Darwin’s ideas, to apply them to new cases, to obtain new evidence for this theory and to answer to problems and objections against Darwin’s theory. However, after working for some time under Darwin’s guidance (for instance, trying to provide (...) an experimental foundation for the hypothesis of pangenesis), Romanes adopted another strategy. As several other so-called Darwinians of the late 19th century, he endeavored to correct and to complement Darwin’s theory, with the introduction of new concepts and hypotheses (especially his “physiological selection”). Romanes’ new attitude might be regarded as an effort to step out of Darwin’s shadow and to exhibit his own brightness. Besides that, Romanes strove to undermine the work of other Darwinians that aimed at similar goals. (shrink)

This paper discusses the role of analogy in pre-theoretical experimental research, studying a particular historical case (the discovery and early investigation of X rays) and using the methodological ideas of William Stanley Jevons. The historical data and Jevons’ analysis suggest that the discovery of a completely new phenomenon is due to chance, but soon afterwards it is necessary that some assumptions provide a guidance to the research – otherwise, observations and experiments would occur at random, and that would sendom lead (...) to significant results. It is impossible to study all the factors that could possibly affect a give phenomenon, and hence the attention of the researcher must focus upon a small number of features. This choice, in a pre-theoretical context, must be guided by analogies. Contrary to tradicional analyses, this paper associates a peculiar epistemological status with analogies used in that kind of investigation: they are interpreted as originating desiderata, instead of probable hypotheses. RESUMO: A partir do estudo de um caso histórico particular (descoberta e investigação preliminar dos raios X), utilizando as concepções metodológicas de William Stanley Jevons, este artigo analisa o papel das analogias no processo de pesquisa experimental pré-teórica. A análise de Jevons e os dados históricos indicam que a descoberta de um fenômeno totalmente novo se dá ao acaso, porém logo em seguida é necessário que algumas suposições guiem a pesquisa, caso contrário as observações e experimentos seriam realizados totalmente ao acaso, o que dificilmente levaria a algum resultado. É impossível estudar todos os fatores que podem influenciar um fenômeno, e assim a atenção do pesquisador deve ser focalizada apenas sobre alguns aspectos, e essa escolha, em um contexto pré-teórico, deve ser guiada por analogias. Ao contrário das análises tradicionais, este artigo atribui um status epistemológico diferente às analogias empregadas nesse tipo de investigação, interpretando-as como geradoras de desiderata e não de hipóteses prováveis. (shrink)

Isometry hypotheses are propositions that assert the constancy of a specific physical magnitude of a system under prescribed conditions. This paper addresses the controversy concerning the conventionality of this type of hypotheses. It discusses several instances of isometry hypotheses and it is shown that experimental facts can be invoked to criticise (or "refute") isometry hypotheses, just as other types of hypotheses. This proves that isometry hypotheses, and the choices of measurement standards that are grounded in such hypotheses, are not merely (...) conventional. (shrink)

This paper studies the history of teleological thought in Antiquity, after Aristotle, analyzing three relevant episodes: the contribution of Theophrastus – a companion and successor of Aristotle; Stoicism, as described by Cicero in his work On the nature of gods; and Galen’s anatomical and physiological works, especially his book On the utility of the parts of the human body. This analysis exhibits the broad diversity of views concerning final causes in Antiquity, all of them widely different from Aristotle’s one, and (...) the strong influence of theological concerns in some of those philosophers – such as the Stoics and Galen. (shrink)

Este artículo nos adentra en el estudio de la figura de san Martín de Tours, el apóstol de la Galia, cuya influencia se deja sentir en toda Europa, especialmente en España. Se trata del primer santo no mártir después de la paz de Constantino. Resultó ser soldado por fuerza, obispo por obligación, monje por gusto. Representa un nuevo modelo de santidad. De eremita evoluciona a la vida cenobítica, como padre de monjes; y como obispo es el defensor civitatis además del (...) gran evangelizador del mundo rural de la Galia. A su alrededor se generan otros santos. Por otra parte, Tours es la ciudad en que comienza la via turonensis del célebre Camino de Santiago. El Apóstol Santiago y Martín de Tours comparten culto y compiten en santidad como grandes taumaturgos. (shrink)

A selection of papers presented at the III South Cone Meeting of Philosophy and History of Science. Papers are in Portuguese and Spanish.

Dissertação ANDRADE, Jackson Martins de. Religião, pluralismo e sociedade : uma análise do discurso paulino e sua contribuição para a comunidade cristã atual em seu diálogo com a sociedade de pluralismo religioso e Cultural. 2014. Dissertação – Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Religião, Belo Horizonte.

This paper addresses the context of emergence, development, and current status of the use of history and philosophy of science in science education in Brazil. After a short overview of the three areas (history of science, philosophy of science, and science education) in Brazil, the paper focuses on the application of this approach to teaching physics, chemistry, and biology at the secondary school level. The first Brazilian researches along this line appeared more consistently in the decade of 1970. From 1980 (...) onwards, the importance of this approach became widely accepted, and the subject became a common theme of dissertations and theses, appearing in conferences and educational journals. Since 1998, the use of history and philosophy of science was included among the government recommendations for secondary school science teaching in Brazil. Nowadays, this is an important line of research in graduate programs on science and mathematics education. However, the actual use of this approach in secondary education is still a desideratum. (shrink)

The issue concerning the nature of science can be dealt in different ways. The question “What is science?” can receive empirical answers (what has been science, historically?), normative answers (what should be science?) and analytical ones (what could be science?). The two later approaches concern Philosophy. This paper criticises some philosophical attitudes towards science (relativism, dogmatism, scepticism, ecletism). It claims the existence of a well grounded acquired epistemological wisdom, encompassed by “impotence principles” that exhibit some limits of the human thought (...) and point out what science cannot be. On the other side, there are no acceptable science/non-science demarcation criteria. This does not lead necessarily to a relativist or anarchist view, because it is possible to argue for a non-prohibitive axiological concept of science that could evaluate and guide research. RESUMO: A questão da natureza da ciência pode ser respondida sob diferentes pontos de vista. A pergunta “O que é a ciência?” pode receber respostas de tipo empírico (o que tem sido, historicamente, a ciência?), de tipo normativo (o que deveria ser a ciência?) e de tipo analítico (o que poderia ser a ciência?). Apenas esses dois últimos enfoques são pertinentes à Filosofia. Este artigo critica algumas atitudes filosóficas frente à natureza da ciência (relativismo, dogmatismo, ceticismo, ecletismo), defendendo no entanto a existência de pontos bem estabelecidos na Epistemologia, dados por “princípios de impotência” que mostram limites do pensamento humano e que indicam o que a ciência não pode ser. Por outro lado, não há critérios aceitáveis de demarcação entre ciência e não-ciência. Isso não leva necessariamente a uma posição relativista ou anarquista, pois é possível defender uma concepção axiológica não-proibitiva da ciência que permite avaliar e orientar a pesquisa. (shrink)

The Association of Philosophy and History of Science in the South Cone is a non-profit academic association, founded on May 5th, 2000, in Quilmes, Argentina, at the closing ceremony of the 2nd Meeting of Philosophy and History of Science in the South Cone. The creation of this Association was the result of the interest to deepen and strengthen the exchange between the researchers in Philosophy and History of Science from the countries of the South Cone, from the two first meetings (...) that took place in Porto Alegre and Quilmes onwards. Since then, there have been biennial meetings organized as its responsibility. The main aim of AFHIC is to contribute to a better understanding of science from a philosophical as well as a historical point of view in the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries, especially in those which belong to the American South Cone, promoting a space for reflection, exchange, discussion, communication, and dissemination of such an understanding. This volume is - with minor changes - the English version of Fisica: Estudos Filosofi cos e Historicos. It is composed of refereed and, in some cases, opportunely modifi ed contributions made by members of the Association of Philosophy and History of Science in the South Cone, some of them who are unfortunately no longer among us. Pablo Lorenzano Director of AFHIC's Book Series. (shrink)

Towards the middle of the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis proposed the “principle of least action” as a fundamental law of physics and as a proof of the existence of God. Samuel König and other contemporary authors criticized Maupertuis’ work. There ensued a fierce discussion concerning this subject, in which Leonhard Euler, the king Frédéric II of Prussia and Voltaire took part. This paper discusses that debate, emphasizing its extrascientific features and analyzing the interests that motivated the actions of (...) the people involved in that episode. Key words: Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, François Marie Arouet Voltaire, Johann Samuel König, Frédéric II – king of Prussia, principle of least action, history of physics, scientific controversies. (shrink)

This paper discusses the possibility of an absolute vacuum - a space without any substance. The motivation of this study is the contrast between most philosophers, up to Descartes, who stated that a vacuum was impossible, and the 17th century change of outlook, when the possibility and effective existence of the vacuum was accepted after the experiments of Torricelli and Pascal. This article attempts to show that, contrary to the received opinion, the acceptance of an ether is preferable to the (...) acceptance of a vacuum for several reasons. First: it is impossible to provide an empirical proof of the non-existence of the ether; second, an absolute vacuum is unthinkable; third, the ether concept is useful for the understanding of physical phaenomena; and fourth, the hypothesis of an ether in apparently void spaces is useful for the future development of science. The paper also endeavours to show that no recent advance of science changed those conclusions and that no future development can change them. (shrink)

O conceito de pseudo-ciência procura identificar propostas que têm uma aparência científica mas que não satisfazem critérios rigorosos de cientificidade. Alguns exemplos muito citados de pseudo-fenômenos estão os fatos alegados pela parapsicologia e pela astrologia. Para caracterizar a pseudo-ciência alguns autores propuseram critérios psicológicos, sociológicos ou metodológicos. O objetivo básico de uma caracterização metodológica dos pseudo-fenômenos é permitir identificar aquilo que parece existir, mas não existe. Trata-se, portanto, de uma distinção essencialmente ontológica. Este trabalho irá descrever várias tentativas de estabelecer (...) critérios desse tipo e mostrará que nenhuma delas é satisfatória. Será apresentada uma abordagem alternativa, compatível com o caráter provisório do conhecimento científico, que permite avaliar a proposta de existência de um novo fenômeno e guiar a pesquisa, sem no entanto permitir concluir se o fenômeno existe ou não. (shrink)

Dans cet article nous étudions le Trattato della sfera de Galilée, écrit avant 1600. C’est un traité d’astronomie géocentrique qui suit la structure du Tractatus de sphæra de Johannes de Sacrobosco. Nous analysons quelques particularités du traité, en le comparant à d’autres travaux astronomiques du xvie siècle, et nous discutons ses sources probables. Nous soutenons que l’influence du commentaire de Christoph Clavius sur la Sphæra de Sacrobosco ne peut pas être considérée comme son influence unique ou principale. Le traité de (...) Galilée était probablement inspiré par la Sfera del mondo de Piccolomini, un travail qui anticipait plusieurs particularités du Trattato della sfera. Cette influence est établie par de nombreuses annotations de Galilée trouvées dans un exemplaire du livre de Piccolomini. (shrink)

This work compares the views of René Descartes and Isaac Newton on the nature of gravitation and the possibility of direct action at a distance. In his early writings, Newton tried to find mechanical explanations of gravitation, but could not find any acceptable model. For that reason he preferred to avoid any mechanical explanation. He admitted that the existence of gravitation could be justified by induction, and used it to explain and to predict several phenomena, although gravitation itself was not (...) explained. Descartes, on the other side, tried to explain gravity and the motion of planets using a mechanical model that accepted the existence of vortices of invisible matter. He criticized authors of his time, such as Roberval, who tried to introduce action at a distance. Descartes argued that this would require that brute matter should be endowed with soul and intelligence. This article analyses the arguments of several authors (before and after Descartes) and concludes that Descartes' criticism of action at a distance is valid. RESUMO: Este trabalho discute as posições de René Descartes e Isaac Newton frente à natureza da gravitação e à possibilidade de ações diretas à distância. Newton procurou inicialmente explicações mecânicas da gravitação, porém, não encontrando nenhum modelo aceitável, preferiu não propor nenhuma explicação. Admitindo que a existência da gravitação era justificada pela indução, ele a utilizou para explicar e prever muitos fenômenos, sem que ela própria fosse, no entanto, explicada. Descartes, por sua vez, tentou explicar a gravidade e os movimentos dos planetas a partir de um modelo mecânico de um vórtice de matéria invisível, criticando duramente autores de sua época que, como Roberval, tentaram introduzir a idéia de ação à distância, pois isso exigiria atribuir-se alma e inteligência à matéria bruta. Estudando os argumentos de vários outros autores anteriores e posteriores a Descartes, o artigo defende a posição de Descartes. (shrink)

From Antiquity to the 19th century it was very common to explain natural phenomena (especially biological ones) through final causes. This paper analyses one of the periods of development of this concept, in Antiquity, with special emphasis upon the contributions of Socrates and Plato. They introduced the idea of an intelligent and beneficial god, who plans the structure of the universe and of all beings in the best possible way. This concept was strongly influential in later periods. RESUMO: Da Antiguidade (...) até o século XIX foi muito comum procurar-se entender os fenômenos naturais (especialmente os biológicos) através de causas finais. Este artigo analisa um dos períodos de formação dessas concepções, na Antiguidade, dando especial atenção às contribuições de Sócrates e Platão. Estes introduzem a ideia de uma divindade inteligente e bondosa, que planeja a estrutura do universo e de todos os seres da melhor forma possível. Essa concepção teve grande influência, no período posterior. (shrink)

This paper describes the four causes accepted by Aristotle, and then focus upon his concept of final causes, especially emphasizing its use in the study of living beings. The article discusses several difficulties in interpreting Aristotle’s teleology, such as its relation with the concept of a providential god, and the difficulty of understanding goals in processes that do not include intelligent agency. The Aristotelian ideas on final causes are highly complex, and they are widely different from those usually ascribed to (...) the philosopher. RESUMO: Este artigo apresenta uma descrição dos quatro tipos de causas aceitas por Aristóteles, centralizando-se depois nas causas finais, focalizando principalmente seu uso no estudo dos seres vivos. Discute diversos problemas da interpretação da teleologia de Aristóteles, tal como sua relação com a ideia de um deus previdente e as dificuldades de compreensão de finalidades em processos que não envolvem agentes inteligentes. As ideias aristotélicas sobre as causas finais são altamente complexas, e muito diferentes das versões simplistas que costumam ser atribuídas ao filósofo. (shrink)

In the early 20th century, science was supposed to be “value free”. In 1953 Richard Rudner claimed that “the scientist qua scientist makes value judgments”, and later philosophers discussed the relations between science and values. From the 60’s onward Michael Scriven and other authors came to the conclusion that non-moral values (intrinsic or epistemic values) are required to evaluate scientific works. This paper supports this general view. However, it stresses that there are several independent scientific values, corresponding to a multi-dimensional (...) value space, and for this reason it is commonly impossible to compare the scientific worth of two different scientific contributions. Scientific values can be used to guide and to evaluate scientific research. However, the result is not a linear succession of better and better theories, but a proliferation of different theories and hypotheses, each of them fulfilling only a few desiderata. RESUMEN: A principios del siglo XX se suponía que la ciencia era “libre de valores”. En 1953 Richard Rudner concedió que “el científico cómo científico hace juicios de valor”, y filósofos posteriores discutieron las relaciones entre la ciencia y los valores. De los años 60 hacia delante, Michael Scriven y otros autores llegaron a la conclusión que valores no-morales (valores científicos intrínsecos o epistémicos) son requeridos para evaluar trabajos científicos. El presente trabajo utiliza esta perspectiva general. Sin embargo, enfatiza que hay muchos valores científicos independientes, correspondiendo a un espacio multidimensional de valores, y por esta razón es comúnmente imposible comparar los valores científicos de dos contribuciones científicas diversas. Los valores científicos se pueden utilizar para dirigir y para evaluar la investigación científica. Sin embargo, el resultado no es una sucesión linear de teorías mejores y mejores, sino una proliferación de teorías y hipótesis diversas, y cada una de ellas satisfaz solamente algunos desiderata. (shrink)

Este trabajo discute si hoy todavía es posible admitir que hay principios a priori que no pueden ser abandonados por la física. La historia indica que ciertas “imposibilidades” filosóficas (como el movimiento, el vacuo y la acción directa a distancia) fueron sucesivamente abandonadas por la física. En el siglo XX, la mecánica cuántica rechazó al determinismo y al principio de simetría. La opinión más común entre los científicos es la de que cuando hay un conflicto entre física y filosofía hay (...) que despreciar a los principios a priori. Sin embargo, hay todavía casos en los cuales es posible negar la posibilidad de determinados objetos físicos que entran en conflicto con nuestros conceptos espaciales. El autor defiende que existen principios a priori válidos en la física, y que su abandono es una deficiencia de determinadas teorías físicas modernas. Tal postura no tiene por consecuencia la negación de tales teorías, pero impone la tarea de complementarlas o interpretarlas de un novo modo para que sean compatibles con los principios filosóficos. (shrink)

According to Aristotelian physics, there was a fundamental distinction between natural and violent motion. When the cause of the motion was internal to the moving body, that motion was regarded as natural. Violent motion was supposed to have an external efficient cause. It should stop as soon as this external cause ceased its action. The fall of a body was believed to have an internal cause – the very nature of the heavy body – but the motion of a projectile (...) was supposed to be accidental and a violent one, produced by an external agent and maintained by the continuous action of the air around it. Those distinctions disappeared from physics during the 17th century. Descartes and Newton do not address those problems. However, in Galileo’s thought those distinctions were still present, and they did play a relevant role in his physics. Some central arguments presented by Galileo Galilei in the Dialogues concerning the two chief world systems depended on the characterisation of circular motion as “natural”. Considerations concerning natural or violent motion, circular and straight motions, provided a trap that led Galileo astray to ideas that seem extremely odd, from the point of view of classical mechanics. This article shows how Galileo struggled with those Aristotelian concepts when he tried to understand the nature of the motion of falling bodies. (shrink)

El Repertorio bibliográfico sobre Martin Heidegger que se presenta a continuación, reúne la información obtenida de las más de 240 revistas de filosofía disponibles en la Hemeroteca de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. El Repertorio incluye referencias bibliográficas completas de los artículos, reseñas, estudios críticos, traducciones y otros documentos que abordan la obra del importante pensador alemán hasta el año 2010.

Norwood Hanson's last paper (“An anatomy of discovery”, 1967) presented an analysis of the very concept of "discovery". Many recent historiographical works discuss episodes of scientific discovery, but there are few epistemological analyses of this concept. The present paper attempts to improve Hanson's work, proposing a hierarchical series of discovery levels. The analysis presented here establishes the conditions that should be satisfied in order to ascribe the scientific discovery of a new phenomenon to somebody. It also points out the partial (...) aims that one should endeavour to attain in the investigation of a new phenomenon. RESUMEN: El último artículo escrito por Norwood Hanson (“An anatomy of discovery”, 1967) analizaba el concepto mismo de “descubrimiento”. Muchos trabajos historiográficos recientes discuten episodios de descubrimientos científicos, pero hay pocos análisis epistemológicos de este concepto. El presente artículo procura perfeccionar el trabajo de Hanson, proponiendo una serie jerárquica de niveles de descubrimiento. El análisis que se presenta acá establece las condiciones que deben ser satisfechas para que se atribuya a un individuo el descubrimiento científico de un novo fenómeno, e indica también las metas parciales que se deben buscar en la investigación de un fenómeno desconocido. (shrink)

In the first chapter of the Origin of species and in two chapters of the Variation of animals and plants under domestication, Darwin discusses the origin of domestic pigeons, claiming that all the known breeds were produced from a single species: Columba livia, the rock pigeon. The detailed defense of this point is of high relevance in Darwin’s argumentation strategy, since the differences between the several domestic breeds is so large that, if they were found in the wild, they could (...) be classified as different species or genera. If man was able to produce such large differences, it becomes plausible that nature can produce even larger differences, and therefore the process of natural selection becomes acceptable. Darwin emphasizes the enormous differences between the several domestic breeds (that may have dissimilar cranial structures and a varying number of vertebrae), and at the same time he attempts to show that there are connections and transitions between the extreme types, arguing for their common origin. One of the several interesting parts of his argument is an experiment of crossing between widely different breeds, which led him to obtain pigeons similar to the wild species. The detailed analysis of Darwin’s study of pigeons shows the extreme care he took in his attempt to provide strong arguments for his theory. RESUMO: No primeiro capítulo do Origin of species, e em dois capítulos do Variation of animals and plants under domestication, Darwin discute a origem dos pombos domésticos, defendendo que todas as raças conhecidas provêm de uma única espécie: Columba livia, o pombo de rocha. A defesa detalhada desse ponto é de grande importância na estratégia argumentativa de Darwin, pois as diferenças entre as várias raças de pombos são tão grandes que, se fossem encontradas em estado selvagem, poderiam ser classificadas como espécies ou gêneros diferentes. Se o homem foi capaz de produzir mudanças tão grandes como essas, torna-se plausível que a natureza possa produzir diferenças ainda maiores, e assim o processo de seleção natural se torna aceitável. Darwin enfatiza as grandes diferenças entre as raças de pombos (que chegam a possuir, por exemplo, diferentes estruturas cranianas e diferentes números de vértebras), e ao mesmo tempo procura mostrar a existência de nuances e transições entre os tipos extremos, para defender a origem comum. Um dos aspectos interessantes de sua argumentação é um experimento de cruzamento entre raças bem diferentes, através da qual obtém pombos semelhantes à espécie selvagem. A análise detalhada desse estudo de Darwin mostra o extremo cuidado que ele tomava para tentar proporcionar fortes argumentos a favor de sua teoria. (shrink)

Einstein knew and accepted some philosophical ideas similar to Bridgman's operationalism, at the time when he developed the theory of relativity. It is possible to detect the influence of those ideas both in the special and the general theories. Some of the basic steps taken by Einstein were essentially operationalistic: they could not be justified without epistemological principles of that kind. The common opinion is held that the special theory of relativity embodied a complete and coherent operational elucidation of physical (...) magnitudes. This paper, however, points out some instances of physical magnitudes used in special relativity – such as the force that acts upon a moving body, its mass and its temperature – that could not be measured. It is claimed that this shows an early empistemological inconsistency in Einstein's work. RESUMO: Einstein conhecia e aceitava idéias filosóficas aparentadas ao operacionalismo de Bridgman na época em que desenvolvia a teoria da relatividade. Pode-se detectar essa influência nas teorias especial e geral da relatividade. Alguns dos passos básicos de Einstein foram essencialmente operacionalistas. Assim, é comum a opinião que supõe ter sido completamente efetuada, na teoria especial, de modo coerente, a elucidação operacional das grandezas físicas. Neste artigo, porém, apresentam-se exemplos de grandezas físicas utilizadas na relatividade especial – como a força que age sobre um corpo em movimento, sua massa e sua temperatura – que não eram mensuráveis. Isso revela uma inconsistência epistemológica no trabalho inicial de Einstein. (shrink)

: Suppose a scientist discovers a new, unpredicted phenomenon. How can one ascertain the causes, properties and laws of the phenomenon? How can one plan the investigation of the circumstances that affect the phenomenon, and of the effects that the new phenomenon could produce? If the phenomenon is completely unexpected and does not fit any previous theory, it is impossible to provide a theoretical prediction of its likely properties. In the empiricist tradition, therefore, the recommended method was to investigate all (...) possibilities, because in such cases it is impossible to exclude a priori anything. William Stanley Jevons provided a clear criticism of this method. It is impossible to investigate all possibilities, because they are boundless. Is it then impossible to plan the research of unexpected new phenomena? No. Jevons pointed out an alternative. According to Jevons, a scientist confronting a new, unexpected phenomenon, should compare it to other known phenomena to establish analogies. This comparison should allow the researcher to find out one or several known phenomena similar to the new one. This paper will present and discuss Jevons’ proposal in the context of late 19th century methodology of science. Keywords: scientific method; empirical research; analogy; Jevons, William Stanley. (shrink)

Este trabajo analiza las diferencias entre las teorías de Lorentz y Poincaré (quienes aceptaban el éter) y de Einstein, cuestionando las explicaciones comunes de los motivos por los cuales la teoría de la relatividad es preferible a la anterior. La principal diferencia entre los puntos de vista de Einstein y de Lorentz y Poincaré era de naturaleza epistemológica y no teórica. Cada uno de los enfoques tenía aspectos epistémicos positivos, pero de la misma manera les hacía falta a los dos (...) puntos de vista determinados aspectos que estaban presentes en la otra propuesta. Por lo tanto, una de ellas no era superior a la otra. De ese modo, no había argumentos conclusivos que permitieron elegir una de ellas y rechazar a la otra. (shrink)

A considerable part of the 20th century epistemology was devoted to attempts at differentiating science from metaphysics or from non-science. Such demarcations try to establish necessary and sufficient conditions to ascribe the scientific status to a theory. However, all demarcations that were proposed conflict with scientific practice, and no proposal received general acceptance. This article suggests a new kind of approach, in which nothing is prohibited in science, but criteria for evaluating and guiding the scientific research are established through desiderata, (...) that establish sufficient (but not necessary) conditions to ascribe a positive scientific value to any contribution. RESUMO Grande parte da epistemologia do século XX discutiu a questão de diferenciar a ciência da metafísica ou da não-ciência. Tais demarcações procuram estabelecer condições necessárias e suficientes para que se atribua o status de ciência a uma teoria. No entanto, todas as demarcações propostas conflitam com a prática científica e nenhuma recebeu aceitação geral. Este artigo sugere um novo tipo de abordagem, em que não se proibe nada na ciência, estabelecendo-se no entanto critérios que permitam avaliar e guiar o trabalho científico, através de desiderata, que determinam condições suficientes (mas não necessárias) para que algo tenha um valor científico positivo. (shrink)

There are several kinds of studies about science (metascientific): empirical studies (grounded upon historical, sociological and other factual data); formal studies (analytic studies, that is, grounded upon logical analysis, definitions, formal distinctions); and axiological studies (grounded on value analysis). Those approaches are epistemologically independent from each other, in the sense that from one of them it is impossible to draw conclusions pertaining to the others. Every normative proposal concerning science is essentially axiological, because it is associated to value judgments (what (...) is valid or invalid in science), and it is impossible to justify norms from empirical or analytical studies. It is important, therefore, to avoid confounding those three approaches, or passing from one of them to another without due notice, because this would lead to epistemological error. In order to emphasize those distinctions, the paper proposes the names "science of science" to describe empirical studies, "scientific methodology" for axiological studies on science that are grounded on internal values, and "analytical epistemology" to refer to formal studies, that merely offer coherent alternative descriptions of science. RESUMO: Os estudos sobre o conhecimento científico (metacientíficos) podem ser de vários tipos: empíricos (baseados em dados históricos, sociológicos, etc.), formais (analíticos, ou seja, baseados em análise lógica, definições e distinções formais) e axiológicos (baseados em análise de valores). Essas três formas de abordagem são epistemologicamente independentes, no sentido de que uma delas não permite tirar conclusões sobre as outras. Toda proposta normativa sobre a ciência é essencialmente axiológica, por estar associada a juízos de valores sobre o que é válido ou não na ciência, e não se pode justificar normas a partir de estudos empíricos ou a partir de estudos analíticos. É importante, por isso, não confundir os três tipos de abordagem, nem tentar passar inconscientemente de uma para outra, pois isso levaria a falhas epistemológicas graves. Para enfatizar essas distinções, o artigo propõe os nomes "ciência da ciência" para os estudos de base empírica, "metodologia científica" para os estudos axiológicos sobre a ciência, baseados em valores internos, e "epistemologia analítica" para estudos formais, que estabeleçam meras alternativas coerentes para a descrição da ciência. (shrink)

This book contains a selection of papers presented at the V South Cone Meeting of Philosophy and History of Science. The language of the chapters is Portuguese, Spanish or English. Published by the South Cone Association for Philosophy and History of Science, www.afhic.org.

In his celebrated historic-epistemological work Identité et réalité, Émile Meyerson claimed that the scientific conservation principles were first suggested and accepted for philosophical reasons, and only afterwards were submitted to experimental tests. One of the instances he discussed in his book is the principle of mass conservation in chemical reactions. Meyerson pointed out that several authors, from Antiquity to Kant, accepted the idea of quantitative conservation of matter; and Lavoisier himself was strongly influenced by a priori ideas, using this principle (...) instead of attempting to test it. This paper will review Meyerson’s claim and historic evidence, focusing especially the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, when the principle of mass conservation was tested in highly accurate experiments. Instead of confirming the principle, some of those experiments led to the detection of anomalies. Hans Landolt, for instance, noticed that there were some small violations of the principle. He observed mass variations of about 10−6 in chemical reactions produced in hermetically sealed glass tubes. Since Landolt was a famous chemist, his results produced a strong response. Several researchers repeated his experiments, with different results. Landolt himself improved his experiments, with a balance that could detect mass changes of 10−7. After changes of the experimental procedure, the chemical reactions did not show significant mass changes. There was not, however, any “crucial experiment” “proving” that mass was conserved. The observed anomalies were set aside mainly by theoretical reasons, after the discovery of radioactivity and the development of the theory of relativity. (shrink)